Reported Speech

Reported Speech: it means to report someone else's words, from a direct speech to an indirect speech.
Rule: we conjugate the verb in the sentence in its past tense, and as the tense of the verb changes, we also change the time indicators.
Tense Change

•  Present Simple  becomes  Past Simple
•  Present Perfect   ----------  Past Perfect
•  Present Continuous-------- Past Continuous

                                          
                Examples  
                                                                 - ''Why are you here?''.
       becomes in the reported speech : - He asked me why I was there?
                                                            -  I am  late for the meeting.
                                          becomes :  - She said that she was late for the meeting.
                                                            -"I have been looking for a job since my graduation".
                                         becomes :   - He had been looking for a job since his graduation
Time indicators change

•            Next week becomes the following week
•           Yesterday becomes the day before
•           Today becomes that day
•           The following week becomes the week after
•           This month becomes that month

                     Examples:                  
                                                         - I am vising my mother next week
                                         becomes: - She said that she was visiting her the following week
                                                         -  "Are you making new clients this month?"
                                         becomes: - He  asked if we were making new clients that month.
                                                    
                                                        

Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparatives And Superlatives:

COMPARATIVES: There are words and adverbs  that are used to compare two units in terms of quality, quantity or degree. Comparatives and Superlatives always preceed an adjective. This comparison is based on two elements : the first element is the adverb that preceeds the adjective; this adverb can be  More and Less, and the second element is the word "then". When we use comparative, the form of the adjective changes when having a short form of an adjective

         The First Form : We use more or less  with long adjectives and adjectives that end with 'ing' from  as beautiful, difficult, confortable, interesting, etc...

         The Second Form : We add  the suffix ' er ' to short adjectives as tall, clean, new, wise, etc...

                                                      Examples: - My room is newer than my brother's.

                                                                        - The plane is more confortable than the train.

                                                                       - Maths test is less difficult than French test.

Exception :  With the  irregular adjectives Good and Bad , we don't use more nor the suffix ' er ' ; there have  a special form as the following:

       The rule of Good : That is a good idea, but I guess I have a Better one

              The adjective good become Better in the comparative form.
     
The rule of Bad:  Not to know is bad. Not to wish to know is worse
              The adjective bad become worse in the comparative form.
  

SUPERLATIVES: There are adverbs used not to compare two elements but to  show the greatest degree of a description. Like the comparative adverb, the superlative adverb comes before the adjective and has two form depending on the given adjective.

                     The first form: We use most with long adjectives, such as wonderful, incredible, amusing, etc...

                    The second form:  We use the suffix ' est ' with short adjectives as big , small , fast , strong, etc...

                                            Examples:- It was his happiest moment when he got his university degree.

                                                             - The plane is the most comfortable for travelling.

 Exception :   As the case of the comparative form, the irregular  adjectives good and bad makes an exception.

                       We say :   His disrespect for his employer was a really bad thing. That was the worst thing he has even done.
                         Also:     Skydiving  is is best hoppy

PS: for the adjectives that end with a 'y' , the suffixes  become 'ier' in the comparative form  and 'iest' for the superlative form  instead of 'er' and 'est' .
                   Example: Happy becomes happier/ happiest

                    

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs Of Frequency:




It can be divided to two parts ; Adverb and Frequency, adverb is a word that is added to the verb, and frequency means how many times an action have been done or how many times something has happened. So we come to define Adverbs Of Frequency as words that are added to the verb in order to say how many times someone does or  has done something. Adverbs of frequency are preceded by the subject and followed by the verb, except foe the verb to be; which comes before the frequency adverb. All  verbs have  to be conjugated in the present simple tense.

The Adverbs Of Frequency are : Always, Usually, Often , Sometimes , Never
           Always: it is about an action that someone does as a habit and all the time; which means it is an action that is done 100 percent
                                     Examples: - I always have breakfast in the morning. ( It  is done   
                                                          everyday)
                                                       - Sara and Mary always visit their grandmother.
                                                       - The weather is always hot in June
           Usually: It is used to talk about something that happens almost all the time.
                                    Examples:  - I usually help my mother with cooking.
                                                       - My father usually reads the newspaper.
                                                       - Kids usually go to school for the first time at the age of 5.
    
    
           Often : It describes an action that has been done many times.
                                    Examples:  -I often go shopping with my friends.
                                                        -My brother often keeps his room untidy.
         
   Sometimes:  It describes something that happens rarely
                                   Example:  - It is  hard Sometimes to find a true friend.
                                                     - Dad sometimes water the plants.
          Never:  It is used for something that doesn't happen at all.
                                   Example: -  Dad never washes the dishes.
                                                    - We never study on the week.

    

                                                                                     

Pronouns

A pronoun is a  word that replaces the noun. The pronoun is usually used to avoid repetition; it can refer to a person,  an object or an animal . There are five types of pronouns: Personal Subjective Pronouns, Personal Objective Pronouns, Possessive pronouns, Possessive Adjective Pronouns and Reflexive pronouns.

1. Personal Subjective Pronouns: it refers to the person that is speaking. It is called so because it refers to the subject. The Personal Subjective pronouns are  : I , You , He , she , It , We , You , and  They .

          I : it refers to the first person singular. / You : it can refer to first person singular or                                                                                       to second person plural.

         He/she/ it : it refers to third singular, for  a person we use ( he/she) , and for an animal  or a

                           object we use ( it ).

        

       We : it refers to first person plural. / They : it refers to third person plural.

  Examples:- I spent all day at home.

                   - You are a very good student.

                   - He/She  is preparing for his maths exam.

                   - It is a very beautiful garden.

                   - We've been learning Turkish for six months

                   - They are having chicken for dinner

 

     2. Personal Objective Pronouns: it is a word that replaces the object of the verb. They are called so because they refer to the object. These Objective pronouns are : Me , you , him , her , it , us , you , them

                                          Examples: - She lent me her book.

                                                          - My mother wishes you a happy birthday.

                                                          - " Tell him to come earlier next time "

                                                          -  The smiths were in London last month. They apologized for   

                                                              not coming to our wedding.

     3. Possessive Pronouns : possessive pronouns refer to something that a person owns or to  something that qualifies an animal of an object. They are placed before the noun. Possessive Pronouns are : My, your , him , her , its , our , your , their.

                                           Examples: - My friend has a car. Its color is red

                                                           - That book over there belong to me. It is my book.

                                                           - Look at the sky! Its color became grey.

                                                           - You are not allowed to park your car here.

              Important :  I like you're phone. Wrong   /     I like your phone. Correct

     4. Possessive adjective  pronouns :  This kind of pronouns is as the previous one . However, they cannot  come before the noun. Possessive objective pronouns are: Mine , yours , its , his , ours , yours, theirs.

                                              Examples: - We live here. This house is ours.

                                                                - These books on the table are theirs .

                                                                - That yellow umbrella is mine.

                                                                - " Is the red car parked outside yours ? ".

     5. Reflexive Pronouns: Reflexive pronouns are words that refer to the subject of the sentence. the reflexive pronouns are : Myself, yourself, himself , herself , itself , ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

                                             Examples: - I really enjoyed myself in the party.

                                                               -She baked a cake for herself.

                                                               - " Make yourself home" .

                                                               - They bought a new car for themselves.

Articles

    Are you often wondering whether to use A, An, or The ? Then it is high time to master using these articles in English. There are two types of articles: Definite Articles and Indefinite Articles.

    Basic uses for Definite Articles and Indefinite Articles:

1. Use of indefinite  articles : ( A/ An ) :

• we use the article A or An we mention something or someone for the first time.  

                                               Example : - I saw a rainbow yesterday

                                                                -I consulted a dentist a month ago  

            

•  We also use A or An to show that someone of something is one of a group.

                                         Example: - It was a magnificent rainbow ( among all magnificent rainbows)

                                                         - This is a gift from Sara ( among all gifts )

• We use A or An to say what's is someone's job

                                           Example: -My friend's mother is a teacher.

                                                           - Picasso was an artist.

• We use A before all consonant sounds and we use An before vowel sounds.

                                           Example : - A car , a house , a star

                                                            - An elephant , An arm , An organ

   PS: there are some case in which we cannot use A nor An even when having consonant sounds of vowel sounds. It in the case of uncountable nouns or plural nouns.

                                          

                                           Example: - Uncountable nouns : I  love to put ( some ) cheese on pizza.

                                                          - Plural nouns : I eat (some) cherries yesterday.

    2. The use of the definite article ( the ):

• We can use the definite article the before consonant sounds or vowel sounds

                                          Example: - The house we bought is very spacious.

                                                            - The efficiency of this medicine is guaranteed

• We also use definite article for things that we are familiar with of that we did mention before

                                           Example : - Do you remember the time we first met?

                                                            - The park we went to last week is closed on the weekends.

PS: The definite article the can be used with plural nous as well as uncountable nouns.

                                         Example: - I found the information I was looking for.( uncountable noun) 

                                                         - The cakes tasted really good. ( plural noun )

       

Punctuation

Punctuation is as important are the words we use, we are more understood when using convenient punctuation marks, without which meaning would be misleading. So what is punctuation?

Punctuation is the use of punctuation marks to end a sentence, divide a text to sentences and sentence to clauses, and to have a well punctuated paragraph . For that we can use commas, full stops, exclamation marks, colons, semicolons, and interrogative marks and capitalization.

              Commas ( , ) : we generally use commas to separate list or series, to make meaning of sentences clear by dividing them into clauses, and where we feel like we need to stop.

             
            Examples:

• To separate a  list or series:  -Daddy bought apples, strawberries, and bananas.

                                                       -Her brother is smart, friendly,  and a hard-working student.

• To divide sentence into clauses:  -When you meet Sara, tell her about the next week meeting.

                                                               -Since next Monday is a holiday, the exam will be postponed.

         Full stops/periods ( . )  : they are small dots that  are used at the end of  a declarative/ informative sentence and for abbreviation

        Examples:

• To end a declarative sentence:  -I Love studying English.

                                                            -John and Mery are good friends.

• To use in abbreviations:  -Mr. Smith is the school director.

                                                   -My friend travels to the U.S.A every summer.

           

          Exclamation marks ( ! ) : they are used at the end of an exclamatory sentence in which we express an excitement or when addressing to someone.

             Examples:

• when we want to express an excitement : what a beautiful landscape!
• when we want to address to someone in general or give an order in particular: - Be careful!

                                                                                                                                - Open the window!

Semi-colons ( ; ) : we use a semicolon to link two sentences and that indicates a sort of relationship between them.

          Examples: - He played much; so, his clothes became dirty.

                            - You didn't come to my birthday; so I was really angry.

Colons ( : ) : a colon is double dot that is used before a definition, an explanation or a description

        
                   Examples 

• Before a definition:  A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicule which is  used for transportation.
• Before an explanation: My friend is a very smart girl: she always gets A+ in maths exams. 
• Before a description: I have a sister and a brother : Mary and John.

Interrogative marks ( ? ): They are used at the end of an interrogative sentence

               Example:  Can I borrow your pen ?

                                 When will you return from Germany?

Capitalization ( a-A) : it's the use of capital big letters at the beginning of each sentence or for proper nouns.

                                      Examples:

• To begin any sentence: My sister is 7 years old.

                                                You can leave the classroom.

•  For proper nouns : Paris is the capital of France.

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